A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study assessed the effects of sertraline on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of phenytoin in 30 healthy male volunteers. METHOD: All subjects received phenytoin throughout the study. The dose of phenytoin was 100 mg three times daily; steady-state trough plasma phenytoin concentrations were determined on Day 6. Concurrent treatment with sertraline (16 subjects) or placebo (13 subjects) was initiated on Day 8 and continued throughout the study in those subjects whose trough plasma phenytoin concentrations were between 5 and 20 micrograms/mL. The dose of sertraline was increased from 50 to 200 mg/day over 7 days; the 200-mg dose was then administered for 10 days. The plasma phenytoin concentration-time profile was determined on Day 7 before the start of sertraline or placebo dosing and at the end of dosing on Day 24. Psychometric testing was done before and after dosing on Days 0, 7, and 24. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between the sertraline group and the placebo group in the pharmacokinetic parameters of phenytoin. In addition, there was no indication that administration of phenytoin alone or concomitant administration of phenytoin and sertraline impaired cognitive function. Treatment-related side effects, primarily headache and nausea, were reported in 8 of 16 sertraline subjects and in 5 of 13 placebo subjects. Two subjects in the sertraline group withdrew because of side effects (rash), and 3 subjects in the placebo group withdrew because of side effects (rash and headache). CONCLUSION: High dosages of setraline did not affect the pharmacokinetics or the pharmacodynamics of phenytoin in ths study performed in healthy volunteers

Summary: Generally, the efficacy of an anticonvulsant drug is a function of the intensity of the seizure process and the drug concentration in plasma and tissues. Because of the variability of the seizure process among individuals, a universally effective drug plasma level is not to be expected. Rather a 'desirable' plasma level range for each drug can be defined, the lower limits being those levels above which the majority of patients are well controlled, the upper limits being determined by the onset of drug intoxication. With the onset of administration of anticonvulsants in average doses, the maximum plasma levels and effect are reached only after several days or with some drugs, after several weeks of therapy. The lag time can be reduced with loading doses in the case of phenytoin or phenobarbitone (2 to 3 times the usual dose). For maintenance therapy phenytoin and phenobarbitone may be given in a single daily dose without marked fluctuations in the plasma levels. Some variations in the plasma levels relative to particular doses do occur, but in the majority of patients predictable ranges of plasma levels relative to doses can be defined. Marked deviations from these expected ranges are however, not infrequent. Low levels are most frequently caused by patients' failure to take the drug regularly. Rare causes for low plasma levels are malabsorption of the drug, or unusually rapid drug metabolism or elimination. High levels may be caused by ingestion of greater than the prescribed dose, by impaired drug metabolism or elimination (genetic or constitutional), or because of interactions with other drugs. Elevation of phenytoin plasma level to the toxic range has been caused by a number of drugs, most predictably with disulfiram, sulthiame and isoniazid. When the interfering drug cannot be discontinued, the phenytoin dosage must be reduced and a new dose titrated using the plasma level as the indicator. In the treatment of petit mal, the order of preference of drugs is based on efficacy and safety, with ethosuximide the drug of choice, followed in order by trimethadione, para-methadione, methsuximide and phensuximide. In grand mal and focal epilepsies, phenytoin and phenobarbitone are the best understood and successful drugs. Primidone is also very effective. Carbamazepine can be used as an alternative. A number of other agents are available for use in combination with the prime drugs in highly refractory cases, or alone when the major drugs are contra-indicated. ACTH, or if this fails, diazepam or nitrazepam, can be used to abolish seizures in infantile spasms. Diazepam is the drug of choice in status epilepticus; given intravenously in status grand mal, or intramuscularly or intravenously in status petit mal and status focal seizures. Adverse effects of anticonvulsants can be divided into three groups: those which are a result of intoxication and which are related to elevated plasma levels. These include nystagmus, sedation and unsteadiness, and are usually, but not inevitably, a consequence of overdosage. The second category includes the side-effects, which occur as by-products of the pharmacological action of the drugs when used in the usual doses and with plasma levels in the desirable range. They may be more severe with higher doses. Frequent among these are gum hypertrophy with phenytoin, photophobia with trimethadione and depression of folate with hydantoins and barbiturates. Idiosyncratic reactions comprise the third category of unwanted effects; these are unpredictable, are unrelated to dose or plasma level and presumably occur on an allergic basis. Most frequent are skin rashes, and most dangerous are blood dyscrasias. The dysmorphogenic effects, the effects on the pregnant mother and on the newborn are reviewed.

The hepatic cytochrome P450 enzyme system is involved in the metabolism of numerous drugs. Specific enzymes are associated with the metabolism of specific drugs. The potential for drug interactions arises when one drug inhibits or induces the enzyme(s) responsible for metabolism of another drug given concurrently. Most psychotropics are metabolized by these enzymes. Clinically significant drug interactions are reported between the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and other psychotropics. Specifically, interactions between fluoxetine and phenytoin are reported with substantial elevations of phenytoin concentrations. Phenytoin is metabolized by the CYP2C subfamily, and fluoxetine is known to inhibit this subfamily. Similarly, sertraline also inhibits the CYP2C subfamily, but no case reports to date have been identified. To minimize and prevent these interactions, one must be aware of the P450 enzymes involved in drug metabolism. The significance of these interactions seems to rely both on the concentration of the drug at the enzyme and its potency for inhibiting the enzyme. Frequent monitoring of serum concentrations of drugs with a narrow therapeutic range would be appropriate when a potential inhibitor is added. This article describes an apparently similar interaction between sertraline and phenytoin in two elderly patients, which resulted in elevated phenytoin concentrations without symptoms of toxicity

Fluoxetine inhibition of phenytoin metabolism

The overall reporting rate of drug-drug interactions with fluvoxamine is very low: only 73 cases have been identified from an estimated exposure of over 8 million patients worldwide. The reporting rate is similar in men and women, and most events relate to the use of fluvoxamine in conjunction with psychotropic compounds and anticoagulants. Two deaths have been documented. One involved a female patient who was given concomitant tryptophan and reportedly developed neuroleptic malignant syndrome. The causative role of fluvoxamine/tryptophan interaction in this case is unknown. The other reported death was considered to be unrelated to fluvoxamine. Fluvoxamine interactions with anti-epileptic or antidepressant drugs resulted in elevated plasma concentrations of the target drug and/or clinical symptoms, while interactions with neuroleptic or anticoagulant agents mostly resulted in clinical symptoms. Fluvoxamine increased plasma concentrations of tricyclic antidepressants by varying extents, particularly those of clomipramine (maximum reported increase 8-fold). Generally, clinical symptoms were infrequent and varied widely; no symptom clusters were identified. Those agents metabolised by cytochrome P450 1A2 isoenzyme appear most likely to be involved in drug-drug interactions with fluvoxamine

Many drug interactions can be demonstrated, but only a few are so clinically significant that they necessitate adjusting drug dosages. The same drug combination may produce changes of variable extent or direction in different individuals. The reasons for this variability include genetic control of the rate and inducibility of drug metabolism, and environmental factors such as contact with chemicals. Among antimicrobial agents, chloramphenicol may cause accumulation of phenytoin (PHT) and phenobarbital (PB), and isoniazid may cause PHT, carbamazepine (CBZ), and primidone (PRM) to accumulate. Erythromycin may cause accumulation of CBZ. Among anti-ulcer agents, antacids may reduce PHT concentration while cimetidine may cause accumulation of PHT, CBZ, and diazepam (DZP). Salicylates displace strongly binding drugs such as PHT, DZP, or valproate (VPA) from the binding sites in plasma proteins, which may lead to some decline of the total plasma level with an increase in the unbound drug percentage. Conversely, anticonvulsants may influence the dosage requirements of oral anticoagulants by inducing their metabolism. Failures of oral contraceptives have been attributed to anticonvulsants in some patients. Probably the most predictable interaction that necessitates dosage adjustment is accumulation of PB caused by VPA. Intentional inhibition of PRM metabolism by nicotinamide serves as an example of attempts to utilize an interaction for improved therapeutic effect

A single-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial investigating possible interactions between paroxetine, a serotonin re-uptake inhibitor, and carbamazepine (CBZ), valproate (VPA) and phenytoin (PHT) was carried out in 20 outpatients with epilepsy. Patients on long-term treatment with CBZ, VPA, or PHT were given a 7-day placebo treatment, followed by paroxetine co-treatment for 16 days. Side effects were infrequent and mild. Paroxetine caused no changes in the plasma concentrations and all values were within the recommended ranges. No changes in protein binding were found. Plasma concentrations of paroxetine at steady state (8-147 ng/ml) were in the normal range for a 30-mg daily dosing regimen. None of the patients experienced epileptic seizures during the study

Antiepileptic drug interactions represent a common clinical problem which has been compounded by the introduction of many new compounds in recent years. Most pharmacokinetic interactions involve the modification of drug metabolism; the propensity of antiepileptic drugs to interact depends on their metabolic characteristics and action on drug metabolic enzymes. Phenobarbital, phenytoin, primidone and carbamazepine are potent inducers of cytochrome P450 (CYP), epoxide hydrolase and uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase (UDPGT) enzyme systems; oxcarbazepine is a weak inducer of CYP enzymes, probably acting on a few specific isoforms only. All stimulate the rate of metabolism and the clearance of the drugs which are catabolised by the induced enzymes. Valproic acid (valproate sodium) inhibits to different extents many hepatic enzyme system activities involved in drug metabolism and is able to significantly displace drugs from plasma albumin. Felbamate is an inhibitor of some specific CYP isoforms and mitochondrial beta-oxidation, whereas it is a weak inducer of other enzyme systems. Topiramate is an inducer of specific CYP isoforms and an inhibitor of other isoforms. Ethosuximide, vigabatrin, lamotrigine, gabapentin and possibly zonisamide and tiagabine have no significant effect on hepatic drug metabolism. Apart from vigabatrin and gabapentin, which are mainly eliminated unchanged by the renal route, all other antiepileptic drugs are metabolised wholly or in part by hepatic enzymes and their disposition may be altered by metabolic changes. Some interactions are clinically unremarkable and some need only careful clinical monitoring, but others require prompt dosage adjustment. From a practical point of view, if valproic acid is added to lamotrigine or phenobarbital therapy, or if felbamate is added to phenobarbital, phenytoin or valproic acid therapy, a significant rise in plasma concentrations of the first drug is expected with a corresponding increase in clinical effects. In these cases a concomitant reduction of the dosage of the first drug is recommended to avoid toxicity. Conversely, if a strong inducer is added to carbamazepine, lamotrigine, valproic acid or ethosuximide monotherapy, a significant decrease in their plasma concentrations is expected within days or weeks, with a possible reduction in efficacy. In these cases a dosage increase of the first drug may be required

A patient had phenytoin intoxication after administration of fluvoxamine, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. The serum concentration of phenytoin increased dramatically from 16.6 to 49.1 microg/mL when fluvoxamine was coadministered, although the daily dosage of phenytoin and other drugs had not changed. During phenytoin and fluvoxamine treatment, ataxia, a typical side effect of phenytoin, was observed. The genotypes of CYP2C9 and 2C19, the enzymes responsible for phenytoin metabolism, were homozygous for the wild-type alleles (CYP2C9*1/*1 and 2C19*1/ *1). The interaction may be a result of inhibition of both CYP2C9 and 2C19 by fluvoxamine